Suspended matter in raw water supplies is removed by various methods to provide water suitable for domestic purposes and most industrial uses. The suspended matter can consist of large solids which settle by gravity alone without any external aids and ‘non-settleable’ material often colloidal in nature. Removal is generally by coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation. The combination of these three processes is referred to as clarification.
Coagulation and Flocculation – Process Fundamentals
All waters, especially surface waters, contain both dissolved and suspended particles.
Coagulation and flocculation processes are used to separate the suspended solids portion from the water.
The suspended particles vary considerably in source, composition charge, particle size, shape, and density. Correct application of coagulation and flocculation processes and selection of the coagulants depend upon understanding the interaction between these factors. The small particles are stabilized (kept in suspension) by the action of physical forces on the particles themselves.
One of the forces playing a dominant role in stabilization results from the surface charge present on the particles. Most solids suspended in water possess a negative charge and, since they have the same type of surface charge, repel each other when they come close together. Therefore, they will remain in suspension rather than clump together and settle out of the water.
How the processes work
Coagulation and flocculation occur in successive steps intended to overcome the forces stabilizing the suspended particles, allowing particle collision and growth of floc. If step one is incomplete, the following step will be unsuccessful.
Coagulation
The first step destabilizes the particle’s charges. Coagulants with charges opposite those of the suspended solids are added to the water to neutralize the negative charges on dispersed non-settleable solids such as clay and colour-producing organic substances.
Once the charge is neutralized, the small suspended particles are capable of sticking together. The slightly larger particles formed through this process and called microflocs, are not visible to the naked eye. The water surrounding the newly formed microflocs should be clear. If it is not, all the particles’ charges have not been neutralized, and coagulation has not been carried to completion. More coagulant may need to be added.
A high-energy, rapid-mix to properly disperse the coagulant and promote particle collisions is needed to achieve good coagulation. Over-mixing does not affect coagulation, but insufficient mixing will leave this step incomplete. Coagulants should be added where sufficient mixing will occur. Proper contact time in the rapid-mix chamber is typically 1 to 3 minutes.
Types of Rapid Mixing Systems:
¢ Mechanical devices in a dedicated basin (Most common application)
¢ In-Line blenders (Efficient, Effective at all flows)
¢ Hydraulic methods (Simple, effective, non-mechanical. Energy may vary with flow)
¢ Air Mixing (Simple, advantages if aeration is required. Not common. May cause scum and floatable debris)
Flocculation
Following the first step of coagulation, a second process called flocculation occurs. Flocculation, a gentle mixing stage, increases the particle size from submicroscopic microfloc to visible suspended particles. The microflocs are brought into contact with each other through the process of slow mixing.
Collisions of the microfloc particles cause them to bond to produce larger, visible flocs called pinflocs. The floc size continues to build through additional collisions and interaction with inorganic polymers formed by the coagulant or with organic polymers added. Macroflocs are formed. High molecular weight polymers, called coagulant aids, may be added during this step to help bridge, bind, and strengthen the floc, add weight, and increase settling rate. Once the floc has reached it optimum size and strength, the water is ready for the sedimentation process.
Design contact times for flocculation range from 15 or 20 minutes to an hour or more.
Operational Considerations
Flocculation requires careful attention to the mixing velocity and amount of mix energy. To prevent the floc from tearing apart or shearing, the mixing velocity and energy input are usually tapered off as the size of the floc increases. Once flocs are torn apart, it is difficult to get them to reform to their optimum size and strength. The amount of operator control available in flocculation is highly dependent upon the type and design of the equipment.
Inorganic Coagulants
Inorganic coagulants such as aluminium and iron salts are the most commonly used. When added to the water, they furnish highly charged ions to neutralize the suspended particles. The inorganic hydroxides formed produce short polymer chains which enhance microfloc formation.
Inorganic coagulants usually offer the lowest unit price, are widely available, and, when properly applied, are quite effective in removing most suspended solids. They are also capable of removing a portion of the organic precursors which may combine with chlorine to form disinfection by-products. They produce large volumes of floc which can entrap bacteria as they settle. However, they may alter the pH of the water since they consume alkalinity. When applied in a lime soda ash softening process, alum and iron salts generate demand for lime and soda ash.
They require corrosion-resistant storage and feed equipment. The large volumes of settled floc must be disposed of in an environmentally acceptable manner.
Inorganic Coagulant Reactions
Common coagulant chemicals used are alum, ferric sulphate, ferric chloride, ferrous sulphate, and sodium aluminate. The first four will lower the alkalinity and pH of the solution while the sodium aluminate will add alkalinity and raise the pH.
Polymers
Polymersâ€long-chained, high-molecular-weight, organic chemicalsâ€are becoming more widely used, especially as coagulant aids together with the regular inorganic coagulants. Anionic (negatively charged) polymers are often used with metal coagulants. Low-to-medium-weight, positively charged (cationic) polymers may be used alone or in combination with the aluminium and iron type coagulants to attract the suspended solids and neutralize their surface charge. The manufacturer can produce a wide range of products that meet a variety of source-water conditions by controlling the amount and type of charge and relative molecular weight of the polymer.
Polymers are effective over a wider pH range than inorganic coagulants. They can be applied at lower doses, and they do not consume alkalinity. They produce smaller volumes of more concentrated, rapidly settling floc. The floc formed from use of a properly selected polymer will be more resistant to shear, resulting in less carryover and a cleaner effluent.
Polymers are generally several times more expensive in their unit price than inorganic coagulants. Selection of the proper polymer for the application requires considerable jar testing under simulated plant conditions, followed by pilot or plant-scale trials.
All polymers must be approved for potable water use by regulatory agencies.
Feedwater Products
If you are looking for coagulants or flocculants please speak to us, some further information on these products is listed here.
